Discoveries by Russian Scientists That Changed Lives

January 1961. Manned spacecraft

On April 12, 1961 a new era in Earth's history began – man traveled into space. The world's first spacecraft designed for flights in outer space was created by Soviet designers — employees of Special Design Bureau No. 1, formed within Research Institute-88 (the leading industrial rocket-building enterprise responsible for the development of liquid-propellant rocket engines). It was fully built in January 1961.

The Vostok series spacecraft were developed for flights in low Earth orbit. The head and chief designer of OKB No. 1 was Sergei Pavlovich Korolev — a Soviet scientist and an outstanding designer of rocket and space systems. One of the main developers of the spacecraft was Konstantin Feoktistov, head of the sector of the design department (later a cosmonaut). The spacecraft's control system was created under the guidance of Boris Chertok, Korolev's deputy; the orientation system was developed by Boris Rauschenbach and Viktor Legostaev.

«Vostok-1», aboard which Yuri Gagarin flew into space, was a satellite-type spacecraft that could not perform full orbital maneuvers (it was assumed that control of the first flight would be carried out automatically, but the cosmonaut had the option to activate manual control after opening an envelope with a numerical code).

The length of this spacecraft was 4,3 м, maximum diameter – 2,43 м, launch mass – 4 725 кг. It was designed for a single crew member and flights lasting up to 10 суток. The structure included a spherical descent module and a conical instrument-aggregate compartment with the equipment and apparatus of the spacecraft's main systems, as well as a braking propulsion unit.

«Vostok» was equipped with automatic and manual control systems, automatic Sun orientation and manual Earth orientation, life support, thermal regulation, radiotelemetry equipment for monitoring the condition of the person and the spacecraft systems. The cosmonaut was observed by two television cameras installed in the cabin. Two-way radiotelephone communication with Earth was provided by equipment operating in the ultra-shortwave and shortwave bands.

On April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin made the first spaceflight in such a spacecraft lasting 1 hour 48 minutes and safely returned to Earth, proving that a person can overcome Earth's gravity, reach low Earth orbit, and live and work in weightlessness.

Later flights on Vostok spacecraft included Gherman Titov (Vostok-2, the first flight lasting more than one day — 1961), Andriyan Nikolayev and Pavel Popovich (1962, the first group flight of two spacecraft — «Vostok-3» and «Vostok-4»), Valery Bykovsky (1963; the longest flight in spacecraft of this type — almost 5 days) and the first woman-cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova (1963).

Modifications of the basic Vostok design were used later as well, forming the basis for satellites intended for military reconnaissance, cartography, study of Earth resources and biological research.

Sources: https://tass.ru, https://rus.team

February 1882. Electric arc welding

The worldwide-recognized founder of arc electric welding (as well as spot and seam resistance welding) is considered to be the Russian engineer and inventor Nikolay Benardos.

Nikolay Benardos was born into a family with rich military traditions: his grandfather, of Greek origin, was one of the heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812, a major general; his father participated in the Crimean War of 1853–1856. In his childhood the future inventor received a good home education; his favorite activities were studying crafts, locksmithing and blacksmithing.

From 1862 to 1869 Nikolai Benardos studied first at Kiev University and then at the Petrovskaya Agricultural and Forestry Academy in Moscow, which he left in 1869 to devote himself entirely to inventive work. While still a student at the academy, the talented engineer created and partially patented more than 100 inventions in Russia and abroad across a wide range of fields.

In 1880 he moved to Saint Petersburg and joined the partnership «P. N. Yablochkov-inventor and K°», where he worked on developing electrical equipment and sources of electric current; he introduced arc lighting in Saint Petersburg, Tehran, Paris, Barcelona and elsewhere.

In 1881 the inventor went to Paris for the International Electrical Exhibition. There he demonstrated for the first time a new method of electric welding — using an electric arc and a carbon electrode. This invention received a gold medal and became a principal exhibit of the Paris International Electrotechnical Exhibition.

In 1882 Nikolai Benardos proposed to the world the "Method for joining and separating metals by the direct action of electric current", which he called "Electrohephest". The inventor received patents for arc welding of metals in 1885 in France, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Germany and Sweden, in 1886 in Russia, in 1887 in the USA and elsewhere.

The arc welding method is widely used today in various industries, including construction, mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, aviation and others. With this method it is possible to join metal structures of various shapes and sizes.

The invention of the arc welding method transformed industry around the world. It made it possible to create stronger and more reliable joints between metal parts, which significantly improved the quality and durability of manufactured products. Thanks to arc welding it became possible to produce more complex and technologically advanced structures, which greatly expanded industrial capabilities.

Sources: https://ru.wikipedia.org, https://etu.ru, https://www.osnmedia.ru

March 1869. Dmitri Mendeleev's Periodic System of Chemical Elements

March 1869 was a landmark month for chemists around the world — in that month the first version of the periodic table (system) of chemical elements was published, compiled by the young Doctor of Science and professor at Saint Petersburg University Dmitri Mendeleev.

The Mendeleev table is a classification of chemical elements that establishes the dependence of various properties of elements on the charge of their atomic nucleus. The system is a graphical expression of the periodic law discovered by Dmitri Mendeleev, which defines the dependence of elements' properties on their atomic weight.

To identify the most accurate principle for constructing the system, Mendeleev wrote the symbols and atomic weights of each chemical element on separate cards and arranged them like a solitaire game, repeatedly recombining them and placing them in rows according to the similarity of their properties. By arranging cards with atomic masses from low to higher in vertical columns, he placed elements with similar properties in each horizontal row. Thus a coherent system took shape.

In the modern version of the system the elements are presented in a two-dimensional table in which each column (group) defines the main physico-chemical properties of the elements, and the rows represent periods that are in a certain sense similar to each other.

«Before the publication of this law the chemical elements were merely fragmentary, random facts in Nature», Mendeleev said. «The law of periodicity allowed us for the first time to see undiscovered elements at a distance that had previously been inaccessible to chemical vision».

In creating the table the scientist took a number of bold steps:

• First, numerous experiments led Mendeleev to conclude that the atomic masses of some elements had previously been calculated incorrectly, and he adjusted them in accordance with his system. 
• Second, the table left spaces for new elements, the discovery of which the scientist predicted, describing their properties in detail.  

The significance of Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic system is hard to overestimate, because thanks to it:

• Knowledge of the properties of already discovered chemical elements was systematized;
• It became possible to predict the discovery of new chemical elements;
• Branches of physics such as atomic physics and nuclear physics began to develop.

By 1890 Mendeleev's periodic table had gained universal worldwide recognition as part of fundamental chemical knowledge. Its refinement and the filling of empty cells continues to this day.

July 1874. Incandescent lamp

An incandescent lamp — an artificial source of light in which light is emitted by a glowing filament heated by electric current to a high temperature. As the filament, a coil of a refractory metal (usually — tungsten) or a carbon thread is most often used. To prevent oxidation of the heated element on contact with air, it is placed in a vacuum-sealed bulb or a bulb filled with inert gases or vapors.

The first electric incandescent lamp to gain wide usage due to its efficiency was invented by the Russian electrical engineer Alexander Nikolaevich Lodygin (1847 - 1923). The idea of artificial lighting using electricity had occupied scientists' minds even before Lodygin. There were many different solutions, but most prototypes remained in laboratories until the Russian inventor took up the work.

Lodygin began developing the incandescent lamp in the early 1870s. At first he tried to use iron wire as the filament. Later he moved on to experiments with a carbon rod. Persistent work on the invention paid off – by the end of 1872 Lodygin had several incandescent lamps at his disposal.

While iron quickly proved ineffective, work with carbon rods yielded positive results. It turned out that they not only produced better light but also allowed integrating a large number of light sources into the circuit of a single generator. The series arrangement of carbon rods proved quite convenient, but in outdoor conditions the filament burned out fairly quickly.

This led Lodygin to design the lamps as a glass spherical vessel containing two copper rods 6 mm in diameter. Attached to them was a small rod 2 mm in diameter made of retort carbon. Electricity was supplied through wires via a fitting located above the device's opening.

Although Lodygin's first lamps burned for only about 40 minutes, in 1872 he filed an application for the invention of the incandescent lamp, and in 1874 — received a patent for his invention (privilege № 1619 dated 11 July 1874) and the Lomonosov Prize from the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. At the same time Lodygin patented his invention in many countries: Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Saxony and even in India and Australia.

Subsequent improvements made it possible to increase the longevity of incandescent lamps – air was removed from them and carbonized substances of plant origin were used. As a result, service life was increased to 700-1000 hours.

In 1893 Lodygin turned to filaments made of refractory metals – due to the very high melting points of such metals, thin coils (filament thickness 40- 50 micrometers) lasted longer without breaking, and the lamps did not burn out. Lodygin's molybdenum and tungsten lamps were exhibited at the World's Fair in Paris in 1900. In 1906 the patent for the tungsten-filament lamp was bought by the well-known company «GeneralElectricCompany», into which Edison's enterprise later merged.

Alexander Nikolaevich Lodygin, having created a more advanced model of the incandescent lamp, was the first to turn it from a laboratory physical device into an instrument for practical mass use, a public utility; he revealed the advantages of tungsten wire as a filament material and became a pioneer of the production of more economical incandescent lamps. It was his invention that had a decisive influence on the work of Thomas Edison and Joseph Swan, contributing to the widespread adoption of these devices.

Sources: https://ru.wikipedia.org/, https://elektroznatok.ru/

August 1915. Activated-charcoal gas mask

The activated-charcoal gas mask (Zelinsky–Kummant gas mask) — the world's first gas mask capable of absorbing a wide range of chemical warfare agents (CWAs), was developed in 1915 by the Russian chemist Nikolai Dmitrievich Zelinsky and by M. I. Kummant, a technologist at the «Triangle» factory.

The impetus for its creation were the events of World War I (the use of poisonous chlorine gas against Russian troops), Zelinsky's personal experience working with harmful and dangerous substances, and his discovery of the high adsorptive properties of activated carbon (wood charcoal subjected to a secondary roasting).

22 апреля 1915-го у бельгийского города Ипр немецкие войска впервые выпустили на позиции русских около 160–180 тонн хлора. В результате химической атаки 5 тысяч человек погибли, еще 15 тысяч пострадали (по некоторым данным, около половины из них остались инвалидами). Российским ученым поступило задание найти способ защитить солдат от ядовитого газа. Лучшее решение предложил руководитель профессор Николай Зелинский.

Even before the war, while conducting chemical research, he noticed that coal heated twice in a furnace purified alcohol best. After trying to use it to clean air of harmful substances, Zelinsky concluded that activated carbon could be tried in special filters to protect against poison gases.

Zelinsky and his laboratory colleagues conducted the first filter tests on themselves: they sealed a room airtight, filled it with sulfurous gas, chlorine and phosgene, and entered it with their noses covered by scarves into which crushed activated carbon had been wrapped. The result exceeded expectations: the testers were able to remain in the deadly poisonous atmosphere for more than half an hour, confirming the protective properties of activated carbon.

The problem of fixing a filter with activated carbon on the head was solved by process engineer Mikhail Kummant: he proposed joining the filter — a tin box — to an elastic rubber mask. Such a mask stretched well and fit snugly to heads of any size, making it universal. The result of combining the tin box filled with granular activated carbon with the elastic mask was the first gas mask, which, by the creators' surnames, became known as the Zelinsky–Kummant gas mask.

In 1916 Nikolai Zelinsky secured demonstration trials of all gas mask samples developed during that period at the headquarters of the Supreme Commander. After the tests, the advantages of the Zelinsky–Kummant gas mask became obvious: wearing it, one could stay in a room with dispersed chlorine and phosgene for almost one and a half hours. Other protective means allowed staying there for only about five minutes. By the summer of 1916 the Entente (the Russia–United Kingdom–France bloc during World War I) already had 5 million new reliable gas masks, which saved many lives, not only on the battlefields.

Источник: https://snob.ru 

Декабрь 1959 года. Атомный ледокол

Атомный ледокол - надводное судно с ядерной силовой установкой. Первый в мире атомный ледокол был построен в Советском Союзе для обслуживания Северного морского пути и обеспечения непрерывной навигации. Получил название «Ленин» и был передан Министерству морского флота СССР 3 декабря 1959 года.

Атомный ледокол «Ленин» — гладкопалубное судно с удлинённой средней надстройкой и двумя мачтами, взлётно-посадочной площадкой для вертолётов ледовой разведки в кормовой части. Был оснащен ядерной паропроизводительной установкой водо-водяного типа, расположенная в центральной части судна, 2 автономными вспомогательными электростанциями. Управление механизмами, устройствами и системами осуществлялось дистанционно. Отличался комфортными бытовыми условиями для экипажа, что особенно ценилось во время длительного арктического плавания.

Был заложен 17 июля 1956 года на Южном стапеле Адмиралтейского завода в Ленинграде. Только на этапах проектирования и строительства судна было внедрено около 500 рационализаторских предложений, разработано 76 новых типов механизмов и опробовано свыше 150 новых образцов судового оборудования. В строительстве ледокола приняли участие более 500 предприятий СССР.

За тридцать лет работы в Арктике атомный ледокол «Ленин» осуществил проводку 3 741 судна, прошел 654 400 морских миль, из них 560 600 – во льдах, что по расстоянию сопоставимо с тридцатью кругосветными плаваниями по экватору.

 Основные достижения и рекорды периода эксплуатации:

• 17 октября 1961 года – впервые коллектив и оборудование дрейфующей научно-исследовательской станции «Северный полюс-10» был высажен на льдину с борта судна, а не с помощью авиации, что существенно сложнее и дороже.
• 14 ноября – 1 декабря 1970 года – рейс по маршруту Мурманск – Дудинка –Мурманск. Цель - определить условия и перспективы проводки транспортных судов в западном районе Арктики в конце осени и начале зимы. Актуальность решения данной задачи была обусловлена развитием промышленной деятельности Норильского горно-металлургического комбината и, как следствие, стремительным ростом грузооборота.
• 26 мая – 22 июня 1971 года – первый сверхранний высокоширотный сквозной рейс по трассе Северного морского пути из Мурманска в дальневосточный порт Певек. Так было положено начало транзитным перевозкам грузов по всей трассе Северного морского пути с обеспечением проводки транспортных судов в высоких широтах атомоходами.
• Атомный ледокол «Ленин» стал лабораторией для проверки новых научных идей и технологий в области судовой атомной энергетики. Был накоплен уникальный опыт использования ядерной энергетической установки и подготовлены кадры для ее эксплуатации на новых судах атомного ледокольного флота.
• Март 1976 года – рейс с дизель-электроходом «Павел Пономарев», доставившим груз для газодобытчиков на мыс Харасавэй полуострова Ямал. Положил начало зимне-весенним проводкам на полуостров Ямал, формированию уникальных транспортно-логистических схем морской доставки грузов снабжения для обеспечения разведки, обустройства и эксплуатации нефтегазовых месторождений.
• Первым среди атомных ледоколов достиг годового рубежа непрерывной эксплуатации: 390 суток длился рейс в навигацию 1977-1978 годов.

В 1989 году атомный ледокол «Ленин» выведен из состава флота и установлен на вечную стоянку рядом с морским вокзалом города Мурманска как корабль-музей.

Источники: https://ru.wikipedia.org, http://www.rosatomflot.ru

September 1937. Artificial heart

An artificial heart — a technological device intended to maintain blood flow parameters sufficient for life through the blood vessels.

The pioneer in developing the artificial heart was the Soviet scientist Vladimir Petrovich Demikhov (1916-1998)— a Soviet and Russian biologist and experimental researcher, one of the founders of transplantology, Doctor of Biological Sciences.

In 1934 Vladimir Demikhov enrolled at Moscow State University in the Physiology Department of the Faculty of Biology and began his scientific work at an early age.

In 1937, as a third-year student, he designed and personally manufactured the world’s first artificial heart (a plastic pump driven by an electric motor) and implanted it into a dog in place of the removed canine heart. The dog lived with this mechanical device instead of a heart for two and a half hours. This marked the beginning of a new era in medicine.

Source: https://ru.wikipedia.org

November 1954. Quantum microwave generator

A quantum generator — a general term for sources of coherent EM radiation operating on the basis of stimulated emission by atoms and molecules (the emission of photons of a certain frequency by excited atoms, molecules and other quantum systems under the action of photons (external radiation) of the same frequency). Depending on the wavelength emitted by the quantum generator, it may be called differently:

• maser (microwave range);
• laser (optical range);
• razer (X-ray range);
• gaser (gamma range);
• nazer (nanometer range).

The first quantum microwave generator (maser) based on ammonia molecules was created in 1954 simultaneously and independently at the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR by physicists Nikolay Gennadyevich Basov (1922-2001) and Alexander Mikhailovich Prokhorov (1916-2002), and at Columbia University by Charles Townes with colleagues. Alongside the maser, the theory of the radio-frequency amplifier was developed. Thus quantum electronics was born.

In 1964 the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to all three for «fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which led to the creation of oscillators and amplifiers based on the principle of the laser — maser».

Initially, after the invention, it was thought that the maser was purely a human creation; however, later astronomers discovered that some astronomical objects operate like masers. In enormous gas clouds, billions of kilometers in size, conditions arise for generation, and cosmic radiation serves as the pumping (amplification) source.

Masers are used in engineering (in particular, in space communications), in physical research, and also as quantum generators of standard frequency.

Source: https://ru.wikipedia.org

October 1957. Artificial Earth satellite

An artificial Earth satellite — an unmanned spacecraft orbiting the Earth in a geocentric orbit. The world's first artificial Earth satellite was «Sputnik-1» (code name PS-1 – «Prosteyshiy Sputnik-1») — a Soviet spacecraft launched into orbit on October 4, 1957 (during the International Geophysical Year).

The launch was carried out from the 5th scientific-research test range of the USSR Ministry of Defense «Tyura-Tam» (later publicly named the «Baikonur» cosmodrome) on the carrier rocket «Sputnik», created on the basis of the intercontinental ballistic missile «R-7». Scientists working on the creation of the artificial Earth satellite, led by the founder of practical astronautics S. P. Korolev, included M. V. Keldysh, M. K. Tikhonravov, M. S. Ryazansky and many others.

PS-1 was a sphere 58 cm in diameter, weighed 83.6 kg, and was equipped with four rod antennas 2.4 and 2.9 m long to transmit signals from battery-powered transmitters. 295 seconds after launch PS-1 and the central unit of the rocket, weighing 7.5 tons, were placed into an elliptical orbit with an apogee of 947 km and a perigee of 288 km. At 315 seconds after launch it separated from the second stage of the carrier rocket, and its radio signals were immediately heard around the world.

The launch of the first artificial Earth satellite and its flight generated an overwhelming worldwide response. The global press and radio reported this event extensively. The satellite was monitored not only by specialized stations but also by thousands of radio amateurs around the world. Radio signals from the satellite were received at distances reaching 10-12 тыс. км.

The transmitters operated continuously for three weeks. On 2 December 1957 the central rocket stage separated from orbit after completing 882 revolutions around the Earth. The first artificial Earth satellite existed for 92 days, completing 1440 orbits around the Earth. On 4 January 1958, due to natural deceleration, it entered the dense layers of the atmosphere and ceased to exist.

The significance of launching the first artificial Earth satellite is hard to overestimate. Although it was very simple, scientists were able to obtain some scientific data. Analysis of the received radio signals from the satellite allowed scientists to study the upper layers of the ionosphere, which had not been possible before. In addition, important information was obtained about the operating conditions of the satellite’s equipment, all calculations were verified, and the density of the upper atmospheric layers was determined from the satellite’s deceleration when it re-entered the atmosphere.

The launch of the world’s first satellite marked the beginning of a new era of political, military, technological and scientific developments. The Russian word «sputnik» entered many languages around the world.  The launch date of «Sputnik-1» marks the beginning of the space age for humanity and is observed in Russia each year as a commemorative Day of the Space Forces.

Sources: https://www.roscosmos.ru, https://ru.wikipedia.org, it-world.ru

June 1883. Gasoline engine with a carburetor

The carburetor engine is a type of reciprocating internal combustion engine with external mixture formation and independent ignition. In a carburetor engine, a ready fuel–air mixture enters the cylinders, prepared most often in a carburetor or a gas–air mixer.

The first gasoline carburetor engine was invented in 1883 in Russia. Its designer was engineer Ogneslav Stefanovich Kostovich (1851–1916).

Work on creating a gasoline engine with a carburetor began by Kostovich in the late 1870s – the inventor intended to use it in a dirigible of his own design. In August 1879 in St. Petersburg, at a meeting of the first Russian aeronautics enthusiasts, Captain Kostovich presented the design of an 80-horsepower gasoline carburetor eight-cylinder internal combustion engine with water cooling, together with drawings of the dirigible; this engine became the forerunner of modern ICEs.

By 1883 the engine had been built, but its testing and refinement continued until 1885. The engine had electric ignition, intake and exhaust valves on each cylinder, a crankshaft, a flywheel and throttle valves. Power reached 80 hp with a mass of 240 kg, which exceeded the parameters of the Daimler and Maybach engine created a year later. However, the patent was awarded to them because Kostovich filed his application too late.

Kostovich was the first to apply electric ignition on an ICE and opposing piston movement in oppositely arranged cylinders. The first innovation soon became common for all ICEs, and the second was patented forty years later, in 1920, by the famous aviation firm G. Junkers. Many diesel engines were built on a similar scheme. Also, for the first time, gasoline was proposed as fuel—before that it had been used in households only by homemakers and cosmeticians.

Today carburetor gasoline engines are used in cars, motorboats, buses, construction and municipal equipment and many other applications. Life in the modern world is hard to imagine without them.

Sources: https://techautoport.ru, https://blog.eldorado.ru, https://www.drive2.ru

May 1895. Radio receiver

A radio receiver is a device with an antenna designed to receive radio signals or natural radio emissions and convert them into a form that allows the information they contain to be used. The first practically working antenna-equipped radio receivers for communication and for monitoring natural interference were demonstrated by Alexander Popov in 1895.

Alexander Stepanovich Popov (1859–1906) was a Russian physicist and electrical engineer, the first Russian radio engineer, founder of the radio-technical scientific school, professor, and an inventor in the field of radio communications. For many years he conducted experiments on creating radio communication, theoretically substantiating its possibility in his numerous works.

In 1890 he built a device that detected thunderstorms at many kilometers from the phenomenon itself. This led him to the idea that signals could be transmitted over long distances without wires. Later he developed an apparatus to which he attached a wire. This overturned the understanding of electromagnetic oscillations: the wire became the first antenna in history. Six years later he created the world's first radio receiver circuit.

The radio receiver demonstration took place at Saint Petersburg University: the first radio message was transmitted over a distance of 250 m. On 7 May 1895 Popov demonstrated the radio receiver at a meeting of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society. This day is now celebrated as Radio Day.

Alexander Popov's invention of the radio was a tremendous contribution to the development of global science and technology. This discovery made it possible at the end of the 19th century to equip the Russian fleet with the most advanced communication means of the time. Radio receivers began to appear in the military, and later became accessible to the general public. Thanks to Popov, radio receivers soon went into mass production. People around the world gained the ability to promptly receive news, enjoy music and communicate with each other across thousands of kilometers.

Popov's invention determined the subsequent direction of telecommunications development. Modern space and maritime navigation, television, wireless communications, the Internet, Wi‑Fi, and Bluetooth owe their existence to the Russian scientist.

Sources: https://ru.wikipedia.org, https://www.osnmedia.ru

April 1961. First human spaceflight

12 April 1961 is the date of the first human spaceflight, known worldwide. On that day at 9:07 a.m. Moscow time, a few dozen kilometers north of the settlement of Tyuratam in Kazakhstan, the Vostok launch vehicle was launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome. It placed the Soviet spacecraft Vostok‑1 into Earth orbit with a person on board — Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin. The flight lasted 1 hour 48 minutes. While in orbit, Gagarin maintained radio contact with Earth, observed through the portholes, and monitored the spacecraft systems.

After completing one orbit around the Earth, the descent module landed on the territory of the USSR, in the Saratov region. As planned, at an altitude of several kilometers above the ground the cosmonaut ejected and landed by parachute near the descent module. Yuri Gagarin landed at 10:55 a.m. Moscow time.

The first human flight into space undoubtedly opened a new era — the era of exploring the previously unknown and vast cosmic space. The results of this flight include the following:

1. Establishment of the foundations for a number of new directions in science and engineering.
2. Study of the capabilities, characteristics and limitations of equipment and the human body, yielding new knowledge for the preparation and execution of flights in near‑Earth space using new rocket and space technology.
3. Development, creation and successful testing of space technologies and equipment for crewed flights. Working out and testing selection and training methods for cosmonauts, their professional activities during spaceflights, and procedures for safety and survival in nominal and emergency situations.
4. Proof that humans can fly into space, live off Earth under conditions of weightlessness and other spaceflight factors, and safely return to Earth. Important subsequent milestones were the first spacewalk (A. A. Leonov, USSR, 18 March 1965) and the creation of long‑duration orbital stations.
5. Creation of the foundations of crewed astronautics, development of the entire space industry, and formation of high requirements and standards for quality, reliability and safety of space equipment and operations. 
6. A new "humanized" dimension and understanding of Earth and space, viewing the environment as a single "Earth + space" domain, and a new outlook on the world and our desirable and possible future with a priority on preserving our home planet.

Sources: https://health-quality.ru, https://www.vesvks.ru